The Dyes of Persian Carpets
A. Cecil Edwards writes that Persian dyestuffs… are an integral part of the make-up of the Persian carpet… and to discard one of these fundamental elements is to upset the balance of the whole. But, this would suggest that the Persian rug has been a static, monolithic entity that was only first “upset” by the introduction of synthetic dyes. Even at the time that Edwards was writing, Persian rugs were known to be diverse in styles of ornamentation and the dyes used by artisans were varied.
The best vegetable dyes when used with necessary skill are delicate in tone and permanent in colour, while mineral dyes are apt to be both glaring and evanescent.
The Qajar government (the Qajar dynasty ruled Iran from 1789 until 1925), in 1904 recognised that synthetic dyes were being introduced into the Iranian carpet industry. They also saw the poor quality of these dyes as a threat to the reputation and value of the country's exports. To protect the industry, a law was passed in 1904 applying a 3% penal duty to any rugs seen to incorporate aniline dyes into their designs. This would increase to 20% if the artisan failed to cease their use of the forbidden product. When rug exporters repeatedly appealed against this law, a committee was formed to review the duty, because of which it was increased to a more severe penalty that started at 6%. This was intended to discourage the use of synthetic dyes, however, it was difficult to enforce and due to the lack of a centralised administration. In Qajar Iran taxes and duties were in the realm of local, corrupt rulers whose abuses of power were most likely the source of the dissatisfaction of weavers since aniline dyes continued to grow in popularity in Iran through the 20th century. In a further attempt to dissuade weavers from aniline dyes, the Qajar government established schools in various rug weaving centres of Iran to teach the scientific method of dyeing wool. In 1913, Iran exported 53,037 batmans of rugs containing aniline dyes but only 404,592 batmans without. The initiatives of the Qajar government to curb aniline dyes were a failure and by the mid-20th century, the market was completely saturated by them.
What were these vegetable dyes that were historically used by Iranian weavers before the early 20th-century introduction of aniline dyes, and what were their superior qualities?
The natural red dyes found in Persian rugs come from a range of sources that vary in value based on the availability in the region, the difficulty of extraction, and the richness of their effect. Dyes sourced from flowers and roots like madder reds and oranges, and alkanet purple were very popular. Madder dye has been found in a sixth-century Sassanian textile from the Shahr-i Qumis archaeological site. The word for the colour red in Persian is qermez which comes from the Sanskrit word krimija meaning ‘worm-made’. This demonstrates a long history of extracting red dyes from insect shells from species such as kermes vermilio of which the female bodies were dried and traded throughout the classical world for use as dye. Another important insect to the region of South Asia is the kerria lacca, or the lac insect, which lives on ficus plants and both the shellac and the body of the insect itself is used as a red dye. The dye was traded in antiquity from Southeast Asia to eastern Iran (Sogdiana). In addition, the Armenian cochineal, or porphyrophora hamelii, was harvested at the base of Mount Ararat and used to also produce another variety of red dye. This is also significant to the production of Persian carpets as the region of Armenia has been subject to Iranian rule at various points in history and has consistently traded goods on the Iranian plateau.
The most valued Persian rugs that have survived the passage of time are those of the Safavid period (1501-1736). These rugs are characterised by their rich reds and their deep blues. 16th-century Safavid rugs show the use of Armenian cochineal red. Iran was exporting its own kermes as well as Armenian cochineal but by the end of the 16th century, it began importing American red dyes too. By 1565, 115 tonnes of cochineal pigment were exported annually to Spain and by the end of the century, the pigment was being sold to Venice, Persia, and into Central Asia. This new red dye was highly sought after for its bold crimson red and the trade of it was highly profitable. The import and use of American, New World dyes did not entirely replace the traditional dyes, but the new depth of red achieved in textiles had a strong impact upon Persian carpet and textiles weaving. Fragments of Safavid 17th-century brocade show the use of safflower pink and cochineal bright crimson in harmony.
The introduction of the American cochineal dyes coincided with a period of transition in carpet styles that fell between the 15th and 16th centuries. The carpets of this period had previously favoured bright green and yellow fields of safflower and euphorbia, but the fashion shifted towards the darker fields of red or blue. The taste change likely stems from the introduction of new, deeper reds to the Iranian market. The change was perhaps also influenced by the growing international market of Persian rugs as European traders, particularly the Portuguese, discovered Persian carpets and their value. Sadly, the carpets produced before this period only survive for us as represented in miniature paintings, but some beautiful pieces come to us from the transition period.
A large silk hunting carpet held by the Boston Museum (enclosed below) features a field of light green against which hunters dressed in the pink-red and blue typical of the Safavid period, battle wild animals. The central medallion and the corners of the carpet contain panther dragons brocaded in silver or gold in combat with the phoenix. Silk carpets like this one would rarely be used as floor coverings but would be hung on palace walls and draped on thrones.
The Ardabil Carpet, Unknown, 1539-1540, Iran
Image Credit: Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Perhaps the most famous and one of the oldest Persian carpets is the Ardabil Carpet, currently held by the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. In 2006, the museum created a vast unique display case in their Jameel Gallery so that the carpet can be seen spread out across the floor. The rug is only lit for ten minutes every thirty minutes to limit light damage to the colours and dyes. This rug is thought to have been completed in 1539, however a piece of this size and detail would have taken several years to produce. The design features ten colours produced with natural dyes including pomegranate rind and indigo. A ripple effect can be seen in the colours of the carpet where lighter and darker batches of wool were used.
The Ardabil Carpet (detail showing smaller lamp), Unknown, 1539-1540, Iran
Image Credit: Victoria and Albert Museum, London
The theme of this carpet is to give a reflection of the World Above, or paradise. The bright saffron yellow flowers are scattered across the rich indigo field as stars across a night sky. This is understood by an Iranian audience as a recycling and reimagining of the old theme of the Persian paradise garden. The two lamps hang in this space to represent the moon and the sun; and the golden medallions of the centre and corners can be understood to have a variety of metaphysical, mystical meanings. The Ardabil Carpet was commissioned for Sheikh Safi al-Din Ardabili’s (died 1334) shrine which is still a popular site of pilgrimage. The carpet’s twin is held in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art.
The exports of Persian rugs increased significantly in the 19th century with high demand from Europe and America. To cope with the increased demand, the first workshops for carpet weaving appeared in Iran at the end of the 19th century. Nomads and villagers still produced most Persian rugs but carpet weaving as an industrialised process was first developed in this time. Western buyers were largely ignorant about the styles and variety in designs that existed in what they named ‘oriental’ rugs, lumping together carpets from Iran, India, China, Turkey, and Armenia. Tastemakers in America and Western Europe set about guiding consumers on how to choose their rugs and use them in their homes. Robie writes that the ornate silk carpets of Persia should not be used indiscriminately to dress the floors of our homes but that readers should consider hanging their carpets where they will not be crushed under shod heels. This demonstrates a carelessness amongst Western consumers for Persian rugs, or at least a lower perceived value.
In Iran, Persian carpets had always been a highly valued commodity into which a family would invest their money. A carpet would be treated as an heirloom and a part of the family’s tangible wealth. With new industrialised weaving processes and the growing market of international buyers who lacked discerning eyes for Persian textiles, the quality and durability of the carpets suffered. Synthetic dyes were a serious problem for Iranian buyers since the fading of just one dye in a carpet’s composition would completely unbalance the carpet’s design.
Although Qajar governments sought to limit the use of synthetic dyes in Persian carpets by the time that international markets had recovered from World War II, nearly all Iranian carpet weavers were using synthetic dyes. These dyes were at first damaging to the wool and silks of Persian carpets and were not fast against light and water damage. Today all shades produced by natural dyes can be produced synthetically and they are just as durable. The poor quality of early synthetic dyes has damaged their reputation but the use of natural dyes today is largely only for sentimental reasons and has no benefit over synthetic dyes.
Sources
Bipin K. Sinha, Carpet-Making in the Punjab, The American Magazine of Art, Vol. 17, No.9, The Frick Collection, 1926.
Sultan M. Amerie, Addenda: The Three Major Commodities of Persia, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 122, The Far East, 1925.
Elena Phipps, Cochineal Red: The Art History of a Color, The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, Vol.67, No. 3, 2010.
A. Seyf, Carpet Manufactures of Iran in the Nineteenth Century, Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.26, No.2, Taylor & Francis, 1990.
Virginia Robie, Oriental Rugs, The Art World, Vol. 3, No. 2, The Frick Collection, 1917.
Berthold Laufer, Sino-Iranica: Chinese Contributions to the History of Civilisation in Ancient Iran, Field Museum of Natural History, Anthropological Series, Vol. 15, No. 3, 1919
S. G. W. Benjamin, Persian Rugs and Carpets, The Art Amateur, Vol.12, No. 2, Thomas J. Watson Library, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1885
Itwan, Carpets on Miniatures, https://en.firoozehcarpet.ir/post=260/carpets-on-miniatures/#Presentation_of_The_Designs
https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/the-ardabil-carpet?srsltid=AfmBOor0BeTf1QKBQDaEGbPB6wI3sUn1a3c26slOojiiv4fmCReLoypA
Wilhelm R. Valentiner, Persian Carpets, The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, Vol.5, No. 5, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1910.
Schuyler V. R. Cammann, Religious Symbolism in Persian Art, History of Religions, Vol.15, No.3, Th e University of Chicago Press, 1976
Maurice S. Diamond, Persian Hunting Carpets of the Sixteenth Century, Boston Museum Bulletin, Vol. 69, No. 355, Persian Carpet Symposium, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 1971
Murray Lee Eiland III, Problems Associated With The Dissemination of Synthetic Dyes in the Oriental Carpet Industry, Icon, Vol.5, International Committee for the History of Technology, 1999
Images
Victoria and Albert Museum, London
https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/the-ardabil-carpet?srsltid=AfmBOoq87XM1tIb6kD6rI3Ux7PIW1qpGrXIOZN40LF2ApUjAOkVuwwi5
Cover Image
Ochre, Wikipedia
